TRACHOMA

TRACHOMA

This is a chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva and the cornea of the eye. It is caused by an organism called Chlamydia trachomatis. Chlamydia trachomatis is also known to cause ophthalmia neonatorum, urethritis, cervicitis and salpingitis.

Trachoma is a major cause of blindness especially where water is scarce, such as among the pastoralist communities who inhabit the drier grasslands.

MODE OF TRANSMISSION

Trachoma is very common among communities living in dry areas where there is scarcity of water. Transmission of trachoma is by direct contact with the eye discharge of an infected person. Flies and fingers are important in the transmission of the disease.

CLINICAL PICTURE

Trachoma develops in 4 stages.

✓Stage 1: Early Trachoma

Initially the eyes are red and watery (as in ordinary conjunctivitis). After 30 or more days, follicles (small pinkish-grey lumps) form inside the upper eyelids.

✓Stage 2: Pannus Formation

Normally, the cornea has no blood capillaries on it. But during this stage, many tiny blood vessels are found to be growing towards the edge of the cornea. These tiny blood vessels which grow in the cornea are called pannus

✓Stage 3: Scarring of the Conjunctiva

After several years the follicles on the conjunctiva slowly begin to disappear leaving behind whitish scars on the conjunctiva. In the cornea, the small blood vessels degenerate. The vision becomes hazy.

✓Stage 4: Entropion and Trichiasis Formation

Due to this scarring, the scar tissue retracts (shortens), thereby causing the eyelids to become thick and to turn inwards. This is called entropion. As the thick, rough eyelids turn inwards, the eyelashes point inwards and rub against the cornea. This is called trichiasis. trichiasis adds to the damage already done to the eye and results in blindness

MANAGEMENT

• The drug of choice for the first three stages is 3% tetracycline topical eye ointment. 

• Stage four of the disease with entropion must be treated surgically.

PREVENTION & CONTROL

Trachoma is through supply of adequate water to the community. Regular bathing and washing of children's faces with water and soap should be encouraged. Reducing the fly population in the community through proper disposal of refuse and waste. Early treatment of infected individuals.

By : ummedsaini_

Blood Group || Rh-factor (+Ve/-Ve) & Erythroblastosis in hindi ||

Blood Group || Rh-factor (+Ve/-Ve) & Erythroblastosis in hindi ||

Blood groups

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There are 4 main blood groups (types of blood) – A, B, AB and O. Your blood group is determined by the genes you inherit from your parents.

Each group can be either Rh positive or Rh negative, which means in total there are 8 blood groups.

Antibodies and antigens

Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in a liquid called plasma. Your blood group is identified by antibodies and antigens in the blood.

Antibodies are proteins found in plasma. They're part of your body's natural defences. They recognise foreign substances, such as germs, and alert your immune system, which destroys them.

Antigens are protein molecules found on the surface of red blood cells.

The ABO system

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There are 4 main blood groups defined by the ABO system:

blood group A – has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the plasma

blood group B – has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma

blood group O – has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma

blood group AB – has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies

Blood group O is the most common blood group. Almost half of the UK population (48%) has blood group O.

Receiving blood from the wrong ABO group can be life threatening. For example, if someone with group B blood is given group A blood, their anti-A antibodies will attack the group A cells.

This is why group A blood must never be given to someone who has group B blood and vice versa.

As group O red blood cells do not have any A or B antigens, it can safely be given to any other group.

The Rh system

Red blood cells sometimes have another antigen, a protein known as the RhD antigen. If this is present, your blood group is RhD positive. If it's absent, your blood group is RhD negative.

This means you can be 1 of 8 blood groups:

A Rh positive (A+)

A Rh negative (A-)

B Rh positive (B+)

B Rh negative (B-)

O Rh positive (O+)

O Rh negative (O-)

AB Rh positive (AB+)

AB Rh negative (AB-)

Erythroblastosis

A hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn that occurs when the immune system of an Rh-negative mother produces antibodies to an antigen in the blood of an Rh-positive fetus which cross the placenta and destroy fetal erythrocytes.

By : ummedsaini_

Blood Clotting Mechanism || Blood Coagulation in hindi ||

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Blood Clotting

DEFINITION

Coagulation or clotting is defined as the process in which blood losses its fluid and becomes a jelly like mass few minutes after it is shed out ot collected in a container.

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FACTORS INVOLVED IN BLOOD CLOTTING

Coagulation of blood occurs through a series of reactions due to the activation of a group of substances necessary for clotting are called clotting factors.

Thirteen clotting factors are identified.

1. Factor 1: Fibrinogen

2. Factor-II: Prothrombin

3. Factor III:Thromboplastin (Tissue Factor)

4. Factor-IV: Calcium

5. Factor-V: Labile Factor

6. Factor VI: Presence has not been proved

7. Factor VII: Stable factor

8. Factor VIII: Antihemophillic factor (Antihemophillic globulin)

9. Factor-IX:Christmas Factor

10. Factor-X: Stuart Prower factor

11. Factor-XI: Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent

12. Factor-XII: Hageman factor (Contact factor)

13. Factor-XIII: Fibrin stabilizing Factor (Fibrinase)

STEPS OF BLOOD CLOTTING

In general blood clotting occurs in three stages.

1) Formation of Prothrombin activator

2) Conversion of prothrombin into thrombin

3) Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

STAGE 1: FORMATION OF PROTHROMBIN ACTIVATOR

Blood clotting commences with the formation of a substance called prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin into thrombin.

Its formation is initiated by substances either within the blood or outside the blood.

Thus, formation of prothrombin activator occurs through two pathways:

1. Intrinsic Pathway

2. Extrinsic Pathway

STAGE 2: CONVERSION OF PROTHROMBIN INTO THROMBIN

Blood clot is all about thrombin formation. Once thrombin is formed definitely it leads to clot formation.

Prothrombin activator that is formed in intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converts prothrombin into thrombin. In the presence of calcium (factor IV). Once formed thrombin initiates the formation of more thrombin molecules.

The initially formed thrombin activates factor V.

Factor V in turn accelerates formation of both extrinsic and intrinsic prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin into thrombin. The effect of thrombin is called positive feedback effect.

STAGE-3: FIBRINOGEN INTO FIBRIN

Sequence of events in stage 3 are as follows.

1. Thrombin converts inactive fibrinogen into activated fibrinogen .

The activatedfibrinogen is called fibrin monomer.

2. Fibrin monomer polymerizes with other monomer molecule and form loosely arranged strands of fibrin.

3. Later these loose strands are modified into dense and tight fibrin threads by fibrin stabilizing factor (Factor VIII) in the presence of calcium ions.

4. All the tight fibrin threads are aggregated to form a meshwork of stable clot.

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By : ummedsaini_

Human Blood || Plasma, RBC, WBC, And Platelet in hindi || #blood

Blood

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Blood is a special type of fluid connective tissue derived from mesoderm.

The branch of science concerned with the study of blood, blood-forming tissues, and the disorders associated with them is called haematology.

haeme-blood and logos-study

PROPERTIES OF BLOOD

Colour : Bright red in arteries & dark red in veins

Mass : 8% of the body mass 

pH : Slightly alkaline (pH = 7.35-7.45)

Taste : Salty

Temperature : 38° C (100.4° F)

Viscosity : 3-4 times more viscous than water

Volume : 5-6 litre

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COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Plasma

Plasma is a pale yellow coloured liquid component of a blood that holds the cellular elements of blood in suspension.

Constituents of plasma

Functions of plasma

Constituent.     Function

Water.        Absorbs, transports and releases heat

Albumins.         Osmotic balance

Globulins.        Defense mechanism

Fibrinogen.         Blood clotting

Electrolytic ions.       pH buffering

Red blood cells

Shape :- Circular biconcave non-nucleated

Size :- Diameter 7-8 μm Thickness 2.5 μm

Colour :- Red (haemoglobin pigment)

Count :- Adult male = 5.4 million RBCs/uL Adult female = 4.8 million RBCs/uL

Life Span :- 120 days

Erythropoiesis 

The production of RBCs is known as erythropoiesis.

Adult :- Red bone marrow of long bones (hip bone, breast bone & ribs)

Child (upto 5 year) : Bone marrow of all the bones

Foetus : Liver & spleen

Increase in number of RBCS is known as polycythemia

Decrease in number of RBCs is known as erythropenia

Functions of RBCs

Transport O₂ from lungs to tissues

Transport CO₂ from tissues to lungs

Normal blood contains 13-15 g of Hb per 100 ml of blood

One RBC contains about 250 million molecules of Hb

Each molecule of Hb carries four molecules of oxygen

White blood cells

Shape : Amoeboid nucleated

Size : 12-15 μm

Colour : Colourless & translucent

Count : 5000-10000 WBCs/μL

Life span : 10-13 days

Leucopoiesis

The production of WBCS is known as leucopoiesis.

Adult :- Liver, spleen, tonsils, bone marrow

Foetus :- Liver, spleen

Increase in number of WBCS is known as leucocytosis

Decrease in number of WBCS is known as leucopenia Pathological increase in number of WBCS is known as leukemia (blood cancer)

Types of WBCs

Platelets

Shape :- Circular biconvex non-nucleated

Size :- 2-4 μm

Count :- 1,50,000 4,00,000 platelets/μL

Life span :- 5-9 days

Function :- Blood clotting

Thrombopoiesis   

The production of platelets is known as thrombopoiesis.

Platelets are the fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes that remain in the bone marrow.

Increase in number of platelets is known as thrombocytosis

Decrease in number of platelets is known as thrombocytopenia

By : ummedsaini_

Nervous tissue || Composition, structure, functions

Nervous tissue

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The most complex tissue in the human body is nerve tissue.

Formed by a network of more than 100 million nerve cells, assisted by many more glial cells.

Each neuron has, on an average, at least a thousand interconnection with other neurons forming a very complex nervous system.

Function

1. Regulates & controls body functions

2. Generates & transmits nerve impulses

3. Supports, insulates and protects impulse generating neurons.

Composition

The nerve tissue is composed of two elements:

1. The nerve cell or neuron 

2. The neuroglia

1- Nerve cell or Neuron

Nerve cells, also known as a neurons, are the active component of the nervous system.

Neurons communicate with each other as well as with other cells through electric signals (nerve impulses), which in turn allows effector organs to respond to the appropriate stimuli.

Function: 

Transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands) that control their activity.

Location:

 Brain, spinal cord and nerves.

2- Neuroglia or glial cells

Neuroglia, or glia, are the supportive cells for neurons.

They are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses.

They are involved in provision of nutrients, maintenance of a stable homeostatic environment, and the production of the myelin sheath.

Function:

Glia carry nutrients, speed repair, provide myelin for axons, support the blood-brain barrier, and may form their own communication network.

They are also involved in neurogenesis.

Location

Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system

By : ummedsaini_

Muscle tissue in hindi || Types, Function, Structure

 Muscle Tissue

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Muscle Fibres से Nerves, connected होते हैं।

'मनुष्य के शरीर में 40 प्रतिशत भाग Muscles का होता है ।

Bone > Muscle >Blood

Structure, Function तथा Location के आधार पर Muscle tissue को तीन प्रकार के होते हैं ।

Classification

1. Striated muscle (रेखीय पेशी)

2. Smooth muscle (चिकनी पेशी)

3. Cardiac muscle (कार्डिक पेशी)

1 Striated muscle (रेखीय पेशी)

Striated muscles को skeletal or voluntary muscles के नाम से भी जानते है।

कुछ Muscles को हम अपनी मर्जी से movement करा सकते हैं जिसे voluntary muscles कहते हैं।

यह Long fibre का बना होता है जिसमे एक के बाद एक light तथा dark band होता है।

कुछ muscles अधिकतर हड्डियों से जुड़े होते है तथा बॉडी movement में सहायक होते है उसे Skeletal muscles कहते हैं।

Striated muscle, Multinucleated होता है।

Striated muscle, limb, body wall, face, neck में दिखाई पड़ता है।

यह tongue, pharynx, diaphragm में उपस्थित होता है ।

Function :

Striated muscle बहुत ही Powerful होता है तथा तेजी से सिकुड़ता है।

यह muscles थक जाता है तथा आराम की जरूरत पड़ती है।

2. Smooth muscle (चिकनी पेशी)

जिसे हम अपनी मर्जी से Control या Movement नहीं कर सकते हैं वह खुद ही Contract या Relax होती है।

Digestive system में Oesophagus से लेकर anus तक इन्ही muscle का बना होता है।

Smooth muscle हड्डियों से connected नही होता है।

Smooth muscle में जो cell पाया जाता है उसका नाम myocytes है जो fusiform आकार का होता है प्रत्येक muscle cell, plasma membrane से घिरा रहता है।

Function

Smooth muscle के कारण आहार नली में भोजन का Movement होता है।

इसके कारण ही Peristaltic movement होता है जिससे कि हमारा food हमारे पेट तक पहुंचता है।

कुछ organ ऐसे होते हैं जिनमें smooth muscle के कारण ही extrusive movement (फैलाव) produce होता है जैसे urinary bladder, gall bladder or Uterus

3. Cardiac muscle (कार्डिक पेशी)

Cardiac muscle दोनों smooth तथा striated muscles का गुण दिखता इस muscle में बहुत सारे शाखाएं होती हैं जो जुड़कर नेटवर्क बनाती है।

Function

Cardiac muscle बिना थके तथा बिना रुके पूरे लाइफ टाइम तक सिकुड़ता तथा फैलता रहता है।

Muscles के फैलने तथा सिकुड़ने के वजह से blood को pump करने में सहायता मिलती है तथा blood body के अलग अलग part में distribute होता है।

By : ummedsaini_

Connective tissue in hindi || functions & classification

Connective Tissue

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यह Tissue शरीर के सभी अन्य tissue तथा अंगों को आपस में जोड़ने का कार्य करता है।

इसका मुख्य काम, अलग अलग शरीर के अंग को एक साथ Binding, Supporting तथा Packing का है ।

Blood 

1. Plasma

Blood का लगभग 55% भाग plasma होता है।

90% भाग जल

7% प्रोटीन

0.9% Salt

0.1 % Glucose

Function of Plasma :- पचे हुए भोजन एवं हार्मोन का शरीर में संवहन प्लाज्मा के द्वारा ही होता है | Body temp. को नियंत्रित रखता है तथा घाव भरने का काम करता है।

Serum :- जब प्लाज्मा में से फाइब्रिनोजेन नामक प्रोटीन निकाल लिया जाता है। तो शेष प्लाज्मा को Serum कहते हैं।

Fibrinogen protein :- Blood का थक्का जमने में मदद करता है।

2. Blood cells

Blood का शेष 45% भाग होता है।

Red Blood Cell (RBC)

White Blood Cell ( WBC)

Blood Platelets

RBC > Platelets > WBC

Bone (हड्डी)

हमारे शरीर का Bones (हड्डी) बहुत ही मजबूत तथा नॉन-फ्लेक्सिबल टिश्यू होता है।

यह Porous, Highly Vascular, Mineralised, hard और rigid होता है ।

Bones में salts तथा मैग्नीशियम प्रचुर मात्रा में पाया जाता है।

इसके सारे मिनरल्स bones को hard बनाने के लिए responsible होते हैं ।

Function of Bones :

यह Body का Shape provide करता है ।

बड़े Body Organs जैसे कि Brain, lungs को protection देता है। कैल्सियम तथा Phosphate को Store करने का काम करता है।

Cartilage

Cartilage, Skeletan tissue का एक part हैं

Cartilage प्रोटीन से मिलकर बना होता है।

यह हमारे शरीर के अलग-अलग भागों में पाया जाता है जैसे - Ear, Pinna, Nose tip, Epiglottis, Intervertebral discs, Rings of trachea.

Function of Cartilage :

यह हमारे body part को Support तथा Flexibility provide करता है।

यह bones के joint पर smooth surface provide करता है।

Ligament

Ligament tissue, Elastic structure का होता है जो हड्डी को हड्डी (bones to bones) से connect करता है ।

Adipose

Adipose tissue, fat molecule को store करता हैं।

यह tissue, skin के नीचे, internal organ के बीच में, तथा Yellow Bone Marrow में पाया जाता है ।

यह tissue insulator की तरह act करता है।

Areolar tissue

जैसे नाम से ही पता चल रहा है यह Tissue, Loose तथा Cellular connective tissue है इसके Matric में दो प्रकार के फाइबर रहते है।

1) White collagen fibres

2) Yellow plastic fibres

यह बहुत ही simple तथा चारों तरफ फैला connective tissue है यह Tissue, skin muscles को जोड़ता है तथा muscles, blood vessels, nerves में पाया जाता है।

Function of Areolar :

यह Tissue, Packing तथा Supporting की तरह act करता है।

अगर कहीं शरीर में चोट लग जाए तो घाव भरने में सहायता करता है।

By : @ummedsaini_

Epithelial Tissue (Animal tissue)

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INTRODUCTION

Cells are the body's smallest functional units they are grouped together to form tissues, each of which has specialized functions. e g.blood, muscle

Study of tissues is called histology.

Tissues are grouped together to form organs e.g heart, stomach, brain.

Organs are grouped together to form system, each of which performs a particular functions.eg digestive system.

TISSUES

DEFINITION:

Tissue is a collection of cells which have similar structure and perform relatively common functions.

TYPES OF TISSUES

TISSUES

Connective tissues

Muscular tissues

Epithelial tissues

Nervous tissues

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

CHARACTERISTICS

Cells are closely packed without intercellular spaces

 Lie on membrane

LOCATION

Found covering the body and lining cavities and tubes. Outer and inner linning of most of the body organs such as gastrointestinal tract(GIT), urinary tract, blood vessels, heart chambers uterus.

Found on the entire exposed surface of the body such as skin.

Also found in glands

FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

Role of defense and protect body organs

Secret gastric juice in stomach. 

Absorb digested food in intestine.

Removes waste as sweat in skin.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM

STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM

SIMPLE EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Consists of a single layer of identical cells.

Found on absorptive or secretary surfaces.

Divided into three main types.

TYPES OF SIMPLE EPITHELIUM TISSUE

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

TYPES OF STRATIFIED EPITHELIAL TISSUES

STRATIFIED EPITHELIAL TISSUE

1. Stratified squamous epithelium

2. Transitional epithelium

Keratinised epithelium

Non keratinised epithelium

KERITINISED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Found on dry surfaces subjected to wear and tear.

Consists of dead epithelial cells that have lost their nuclei and contain the protein keratin.

Sites

Skin, hairs and nails

NON-KERATINISED EPITHELIUM

Protects moist surfaces subjected to wear and tear and prevents them from drying out.

Sites

Conjunctiva of the eyes, the lining of the mouth, the vagina.

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

Composed of several layers of pear shaped cells which are very elastic and have the capacity of dividing themselves.

Sites

Lines several parts of the urinary tract including the bladder.

By : @ummedsaini_

Cell Division (कोशिका विभाजन)

Watch full videoCell Division (कोशिका विभाजन)

हमारे Body के अंदर पुराना Cell, divide होकर नये Cell का निर्माण करता है इसी को Cell division (कोशिका विभाजन) कहते है ।

1955 ई.

प्रोकैरिओटिक cell का division यूकैरिओटिक cell से अलग हो है। कोई भी जीव एक single cell से मिलकर बना होता है।

Cell division में, divide होने वाली Cell को, Parent cell ( जनक कोशिका) कहते है | Parent cell अनेक Daughter cells में Dividing हो जाता है और इस Process को 'Cell Cycle' कहा जाता है |

Cell Division कोशिका विभाजन

Amitosis (असूत्री)

Mitosis(समसूत्री)

Meiosis (अर्द्धसूत्री)

Amitosis 

यह division Bacteria, Blue green algae, यीस्ट, अमीबा, और प्रोटोज़ोआ जैसी अविकसित Cells में होता है।

इसमें सबसे पहले Cell का Nucleus divide होता है उसके बाद Cytoplasm divide होता है और last में दो नया Daughter cells बनता है

Cell Cycle:

यूकैरिओटिक cell 24 घंटे में एक बार Divide होता है

1. Interphase 

2. M-Phase(Mitosis Phase) 

1.InterPhase :

जो पुरे समय का 95% समय Consume करता है। इसको Further 3 Phase में Divide करते हैं |

G1 Phase(Gap 1 Phase) :

इस Phase में Cell का सभी Organelles तथा Cytoplasmic Component Replicate होता है।

S Phase

S - Phase में DNA, Nucleus में Replicate होता है तथा Centriole, Cytoplasm में Replicate होता है।

G2 Phase

Cell Division कोशिका विभाजन

Mitosis (समसूत्री)

इस cell division को Somatic cell division भी कहा जाता है क्योंकि यह division Somatic cells में होता है |

Animal cell में Mitosis division को सबसे पहले वाल्थर फ्लेमिंग ने 1879 ई. में देखा था और उन्होनें ही इसे 'Mitosis' नाम दिया था

यह Phase एक ऐसा Phase है जिसमे actual में cell division start होता है सबसे पहले Nuclear divide होता है उसके बाद Cytoplasm |

1. प्रोफेज (Prophase)

2. मेटाफेज (Metaphase)

3. एनाफेज (Anaphase ) 

4. टीलोफेज (Telophase)

Prophase :

इस Phase में Chromosomes बनता है तथा दोनों Sister Chromatids एक दुसरे से Centromere से जुड़ा रहता है। Centriole, Chromosomes को तोड़ने के लिए बहुत ही Important role निभाता है

Centriole, Microtubules को अच्छे से Arrange करने के लिए एक दुसरे के Opposite Polo पर चले जाते है इसके साथ ही Nuclear Envelope टूट जाता हैं

Prophase के अंत में Chromosomes, Protein के द्वारा उसके Centromere में Attach हो जाता है जिसे Kinetochores कहते है उसके बाद, Chromosomes Cell के Equator के तरफ Move करता है।

Metaphase :

MetaPhase में जितना भी Cell के Chromosomes है वे सभी Centre में एक सीधी लाईन में आ जाते है जिसे Metaplate कहते है।

Anaphase :

Anaphase में प्रोटीन जो Sister Chromatics hold किया होता है वह टूट जाता है तथा Chromosomes दो भागो में बट जाता है और Chromosomes जैसे दो Part में free होता है free Chromosomes को दोनो Opposite pole की ओर खीच लेता है।

Telophase :

Telophase में Cell के Centre Cleavage furrow बनता है और दोनों Pole पर Nuclear Envelope तैयार होता है।

By : @ummedsaini_

Pleural Effusion : Cause, Symptoms And Treatment

PLEURAL EFFUSION

pleural effusion occur when too much fluid collect in the pleural space.  (the space between the two layer of the pleura)

** "It is commonly known as water in the lungs " **

Definition :-

Pleural effusion is an accumulation of fluid in the pleural space.

Etiology :-

Heart failure 

Liver failure

Pneumonia 

Renal failure 

Pulmonary embolism

Tuberculosis

Pulmonary infection

Connective tissue disorder

Neoplastic tumors

Sign & symptoms :-

Chest pain

Chills

Fever

Pneumonia

Cough

Complication

Respiratory failure

Diagnostic evaluation :-

History collection

Physical examination

Chest CT scan

Pleural biopsy

Chest X Ray

Pleural aspiration

Para synthesis

Treatment :-

1. Thoracentesis

2. Pleural drain

3. Tube thoracostomy (chest tube)

4. Pleurodesis

5. Pleural decortication

Management :-

Treatment is aim under line cause (heart disease infection tumors)

Thoracentesis is done to remove fluid collect a specimen and relieve dyspnea.

Nursing management

1. Elevate head of bed, change position regular

2. Provide fowler or semi fowler position to expand lung properly and relieve dyspnea

3. Encourage for bed rest to reduce oxygen consumption

4. Provide nutrition diet

5. Administrator antimicrobial agents

By : @ummedsaini_

Bronchial asthma: Symptoms, Cause, Treatment and More

BRONCHIAL ASTHMA :

 Definition

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of airway caused by allergic response of bronchi resulting in reversible narrowing of airway due to bronchoconstriction (spasm) congestion and thickening of walls all of bronchi and accumulation of mucus.

Causes / Etiology :-

1. Environmental factors

_ Chenge in temperature mostly cold air.

_ Change in humidity _ dry air.

2. Atmospheric pollutants

_ Cigarette

_ industrial smoke 

_ ozone

_ sulphur dioxide

_ formaldehyde.

3. Allergen inhalation

Food treated with sulphate, beer, wine ,etc

4. Medication

_ NSAIDS

_ Beta blockers

5. Stress/ emotional upset

6. strong odour and perfumes

Risk factors :-

_ Family history

_ History of allergen

_ Low birth weight

_ Urban living

_ Regular use of NSAIDS

_ Passive smoking 

_ Obesity

Types of Asthma

1. Extrinsic (Allergic asthma)

When asthma cause by allergen such as paint ,house dust, pollan, food preservatives etc is known as allergic asthma.

Allergic asthma most commonly seen in seasonal environment.

2. Intrinsic (non allergic asthma)

It is caused by sympathetic and parasympathetic response of the body .

Other types of Asthma

1.mixed asthma

2. Cough variant asthma

3. Exercise induce asthma

Clinical manifestations

_ Cough 

_ Chest tightness

_ Dyspnoea

_ Wheezing

_ Prolonged expiration

_ Hypoxemia

_ Ronchi(sounds during inspiration)

Diagnostic evaluation

_ History collection

_ Physical examination

_ Spirometry

_ ABG (Arterial blood gas analysis)

_ Chest x-ray

_ Auscultation of breath sounds (wheezing sounds)

Complications

_ Respiratory failure

_ Pneumonia

_ Cardiac arrest

_ Atelectasis

_ Status Asthmatics 

MANAGEMENT

Medical management

1. Bronchodilators

_ Salbutamol

_ Albuterol

_ Formoterol

_ Terbutaline

2. Xanthine derivatives :

_ Theophylline

_ Deriphylline.

_ Aminophylline

3. Anticholinergie :

_ Ipratropium

_ Atropine sulphate (Nebulizer).

4. Corticosteroids : 

_ Methylprednisolone

_ Betamethasone.

5. Leukotriene receptor antagonist :

_ Montelukast

_ Zafirlukast.

6. Mast cell stabilizers (stop activities of mast cells.) :

_ Cromolyn sodium.

Nursing management

1. Assess the patient’s respiratory status by monitoring the severity of the symptoms.

2. Assess for breath sounds.

3. Assess the patient’s peak flow.

4. Assess the level of oxygen saturation through the pulse oximeter.

5. Monitor the patient’s vital signs.

By : @ummedsaini_

Lung Abscess: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

LUNG ABSCESS 

What is lung abscess :-

A lung abscess is a pus-filled cavity in your lung surrounded by inflamed tissue. It usually results from breathing bacteria that normally live in your mouth or throat into the lungs, leading to an infection.

Lung abscess is the localised necrotic lesion of the lung containing person material and from activity. 

Causes :-

Primary: A primary lung abscess stems from an extension of a condition involving the lung itself.

Secondary: Lung abscesses may occur secondarily as the result of a condition outside of the lungs spreading to the lungs.

** "The most common cause of a lung abscess is aspiration of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that live without oxygen) from the mouth." **

Risk factors :-

_ Drug overdose

_ Alcoholism

_ Patient is having NG tube

_ Pneumonia

_ general anaesthesia

_ infectious agent

_ anaerobic bacilli

Pathophysiology :-

     Due to any etiological factor

                         ⬇️

  Infections agents gets in to the lungs

                         ⬇️

             Abscess formation

Clinical manifestation  / Sign & Symptoms :-

_ Pleuritic pain

_ weight loss

_ sweating

_ cough

_ chills

_ increased pulse rate 

_ fever

_ dull chest pain

Diagnostic evaluation :-

_ history collection

_ physical examination 

_ chest X Ray

_ bronchoscopy

_ sputum test

_ CT scan of the chest

Complications :-

Empyema: An abscess may rupture into the pleural cavity, the space between the membranes that line the lungs. When this occurs, the condition is often treated differently.

Bronchopleural fistula: A fistula (abnormal passageway) may develop between a bronchus and the pleural cavity.

Management :-

Medical management

_ administer antimicrobial therapy

_ chest physiotherapy

_ postural drainage should be given

_ bronchodialators (for dilate bronchi)

_ mucolytics (to liquefie secretion) mostly penicillin with metronidazole used

Nursing management 

1. Administer antimicrobial as     prescribed

2. assist patient with painful area during coughing deep breathing to more effective and less traumatic coughing

3. Provide medication to control the pain

4. maintain comfort position provide fowler or semifowler position to patient to promote maximal inspiration

5. Assist with respiratory treatment.

By : @ummedsaini_

Shock, Classification, Cause and Treatment

SHOCK

Shock is defined as failure of the circulatory system to maintain adequate perfusion of vital organs.

Shock is a life-threatening medical condition as a result of insufficient blood flow throughout the body.

* Medical shock is different than emotional or psychological shock.

Classification of the shock :-

1. Cardiogenic shock occurs due to

heart problems, such as valve disorder, heart attack or heart failure.

2. Hypovolemic shock occurs due to internal or external bleeding, diarrhea, chronic vomiting, dehydration or severe burns.

3. Distributive shock is a medical condition in which abnormal distribution of blood flow in the smallest blood vessels results in inadequate supply of blood to the body's tissues and organs.

It is further classified into:-

Anaphylactic shock occurs due to the severe allergic reaction. Septic shock occurs due to E. coli or other infection.

Neurogenic shock occurs due to a spinal injury, hypoglycemia.

Septic shock occur due to the when bacteria release endotoxins

Septic shock are most common cause by gram negative bacteria

Causes of Shock :-

• Excessive blood loss

• Heart failure or heart attack

• Severe allergic reactions

• Burns

• Dehydration

• Blood infection

. Poisoning

Sign and Symptoms of Shock :-

_ Chest pain

_ Confusion

_ Anxiety/ restlessness

_ Bluish fingernails and lips

_ Enlarged pupils

_ low or no urine output

_ Nausea and vomiting

_ Rapid, weak pulse

_ Rapid, shallow breathing

_ Unconscious

_ Pale, clammy and cool skin

_ Dizziness

Diagnosis :-

• Blood tests: A sample of blood is examined to evaluate blood infection, significant blood loss, or an overdose of medication or drug.

.Imaging tests: 

_ ultrasound

_ X-ray

_ CT scan

_ MRI 

Treatment :-

Medications to narrow the blood vessels in case of cardiogenic shock

Antibiotics to cure the infection in case of septic shock

Antihistamines and Adrenaline for anaphylactic shock

Corticosteroids to treat neurogenic and anaphylactic shock

Prevention of shock :-

Maintain a healthy lifestyle: 

Eat a well-balanced diet and exercise regularly to avoid heart diseases.

Prevent injuries: 

Wear protective gears while driving, playing sports, or working with dangerous equipment to prevent injuries.

Drink plenty of water:

Keep yourself hydrated to prevent dehydration. 

By : @ummedsaini_

Atherosclerosis / arteriosclerosis Cause and Symptoms

Atherosclerosis / Arteriosclerosis

Watch full video

Definition

Arteriosclerosis is the thickening and hardening and loss of elasticity of the walls of arteries.

Risk factor  / etiology  / cause :-

_ Hypertension

_ age 

_ family history 

_ smoking

_ alcoholism 

_ deposition of fat /cholesterol

_ diabetes mellitus

_ lack of exercise

Sign and symptoms

_ Shortness of breath dyspnea

_ Chest pain

_ Dysrhythmia

_ Fatigue

_ confused 

_ muscles weakness

_ Visionless

_ kidney fail

_  hypertension

Diagnostic evaluation

_ CT scan

_ MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

_ ECG (electrocardiography)

_ CBC

_ Chest X -Ray

Management

1. Medical management

_ beta blocker drugs 

_ calcium channel blockers

_ diuretics

_ vasodilators 

_ antiplatelet drugs

_ pain relief drugs

2. Surgical management

_ CABG

_Coronary stand

_ Angioplasty :- a procedure to restore blood flow through the artery

Nursing management

_ Regular check up of blood pressure

_ Restrict the high self diet

_ Restrict the high cholesterol diet

_ Quit smoking and alcoholism

_ Encourage the patient for exercise

_ Take healthy diet for keeping heart healthy.

By : @ummedsaini_

HEART ATTACK (myocardial infarction)

Heart Attack 

 ( myocardial infarction)

Heart attack is a coronary heart disease in which death of myocardial tissue due to prolonged decrease of O2 supply because of insufficient blood flow through the coronary arteries.

Others name of heart attack :- 

_ Acute myocardial infarction

_ Acute coronary syndrome

_ Acute coronary accusing

Causes / Risk factor / Etiology :-

The most common cause of heart attack is coronary thrombosis.

Other causes :-

_ obesity

_ aorta inflammation

_ cocaine addiction

_ smoking (nikottin)

_ sedentary lifestyle

_ alkohal

_ old age

_ atherosclerosis

_ less physical activity

_ family history of heart disease

_ coronary artery disease

_ hypercholesterolemia

Pathophysiology :-

Due to etiology factor (coronary artery disease)

                 ⬇️

   Decrease blood supply to the heart

                 ⬇️

     Myocardial ischemia

                 ⬇️

    Decrease cardiac output

                ⬇️

Increase O2 peripheral tissue damage of blood

               ⬇️

Stimulation sympathetic receptor

               ⬇️

Increased workload of heart

               ⬇️

   Myocardial infarction

       (Heart  Attack)

Clinical manifestation / Sign  & Symptoms :-

1. Sudden arrest chest pain, pain located in substernal region.

2. Pain is pressing and squeezing in nature

3. Pain lasts for 15 minute or more

4. Patient feel cold

5. Palpitation

6. Dysphonia

7. Weakness

8. Fatigue

9. Nausea and vomiting

10. Patient may have anxiety confusion and restlessness.

Diagnostic evaluation :-

_ urine test

_ blood test

_ ECG (electrocardiography)

_ chest X Ray

_ cardiac enzyme level

_ radionuclide imaging

Management :-

1. Medical management :- 

 O2 therapy

Analgesics :-To relief the pain 

_ morphine

_ pethidine

Calcium channel blockers :-

_ Verapamil (Calan, Verelan)

_ Nifedipine (Adalat CC, Procardia)

_ Isradipine.

_ Nicardipine.

Beta blockers drug :-

These drugs reduce blood pressure heart rate and myocardial contractility

_ Acebutolol (Sectral)

_ Atenolol (Tenormin)

Thrombolytic agent :- these drugs which are used to dissolve the thrombus.

_ urokinase

_ streptokinase

2. Surgical management :-

1. Coronary bypass surgery

2. PTCA ( percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty )

3. Coronary stand

3. Nursing management :-

_ assess the vital sign of the patient

_ nurse should we provide safe and comfortable position

_ nurse should be give prescribed medication of patient

_ nurse give psychological support of the patient

_ nurse should we provide health education

_ nurses should be maintain record and report of the patient. 

By : @ummedsaini_

PNEUMONIA TYPES, CAUSE & SYMPTOMS

Pneumonia

Introduction :-

pneumonia is the inflammation of the lungs parenchyma characterized by consolidation of the affected part.

Mostly are due to infection by bacteria, virus, fungi, bacteria like organism.

Definition :-

Pneumonia is an inflammatory process of lungs Parenchyma usually associated with in marked increase in interstitial and alveolar fluid.

Etiology :-

1. Bacterial infection -

  (A) gram positive bacteria 

       __ streptococcus pneumoniae

       __ streptococcus aureus

  (B) gram negative bacteria

       __ anaerobic bacteria

       __ human influenza

2. Viral infection -

         __ influenza virus

         __ adenovirus

         __ para-influenza virus

3. Fungal infection -

        __ candida albicans

        __ histoplasmosis

Types of pneumonia :-

Pneumonia mostly divided into 4 main types :-

 

1. Segmental pneumonia :- Only in one small segmental lobe of lungs.

2. Bilateral pneumonia :- Both side segmental logo of lungs are affected.

3. Labour pneumonia :- Complete lobe affected.

4. Broncho pneumonia :- Patchy like formation in the lungs.

Pathophysiology :-

  Due to etiological factors

                     ⬇️

Microorganism enter into the body

                       ⬇️

     Inflammation in alveoli

                       ⬇️

  Mast cell activate and release       histamine prostaglandin cytokinin

                        ⬇️

  Due to cytokinase release fluid shift         to extracellular space

                         ⬇️

          Alveoli filled with fluid

                           ⬇️

                  Consolidation

                             ⬇️

       Decrease O2 saturation in body

                             ⬇️

                       Hypoxemia

                             ⬇️

                       Pneumonia

Risk factors :-

Key of risk factors :-

A- Air pollution

B- Bed rest for long time

C- chronic lung disease

D- Diabitic mallitus

E- endotracheal intubation

F- fully day smoking

G- general anaesthesia

H- Hiv

I- immunosuppressive therapy

Other risk factors such as :-

A. Head injury e

B. Diabetes mellitus

C. General anaesthesia

D. Inhalation of chemical gases

E. Drug overdose F. Heart disease

G. Lungs disease

H. Renal disease

Sign &  Symptoms / clinical manifestation :-

_ Chills

_ Pleuritic pain

_ Cough e

_ Hemoptysis (cough with blood)

_ Fatigue

_Cyanosis (skin colour changes)

_Headache

_Low 02 saturation

_Rapid pulse

_Sweating.   etc.

Diagnostic evaluation :-

_ History collection

_ Physical examination

_ Sputum for culture and sensitive

_ Chest X-Ray

_ Bronchoscopy

_ ABG analysis

_ Montex test

Management :-

1. Medical management :-

Prevention of pneumonia by vaccination.

Antibiotics :-

_ Erythromycin

_ Cephalosporin (syrup)

_ Amikacin (drug of choice)

_ Ceftriaxone

Bronchodialators :-

_ Salbutamol (cough syrup)

_ Levo salbutamol

_ Terbutaline

Analgesics :-

_ Nimesulide

_ Paracetamol

Long acting bronchodialators :-

_ Salmeterol

_ Clenbuterol

_ Formoterol

2. Nursing management :-

_ Analgesics and antipyretics

_ Chest physiotherapy

_ Intravenous fluid if indicated

_ Oxygen supplementation

_ Positioning of the patient to         minimise aspiration risk

_ Respiratory therapy including treatment with bronchodilators

_ Sectioning and bronchial hygiene

_ Ventilation with low tidal volume in patients requiring mechanical ventilation secondary to bilateral pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome

_ Systemic support may include proper hydration, nutrition and mobilization.

By : @ummedsaini_

COPD (CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE)

What is COPD ?

* COPD - CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE

COPD refers to disease that produced obstruction of air flow. They are chronic bronchitis, emphysema and bronchial asthma

Other name of COPD :-

1 Chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD)

2 Chronic airflow limitation (CAL)

3 Chronic lower respiratory disease(CLRD)

Etiology / Risk factors :-

- Environment

- work place

- air pollution

- Cigarette smoking

- air pollution

- chemical forms

- dust

Pathophysiology :-

Due to any logical factors of COPD

                         ⬇️

Affect ciliary cleaning mechanism of respiratory tract.

                         ⬇️

Air flow is obstructed and air becomes trapped behind the obstruction

                          ⬇️

 Alveoli greatly distant and long           capacity decreased

                          ⬇️

  Increase production and                        accumulation of the mucus

                          ⬇️

      Produce more infection

                          ⬇️

            Damage to lungs

                          ⬇️

                       COPD

Clinical manifestation / sign and symptoms :-

- respiratory insufficiency

- fatigue

- tachypnea

- prolong expiration

- chronic cough

- sputum production

- weight loss

- tightness of chest

- pitting peripheral edema

Treatment :-

1. Medical management :-

- lungs transplantations

- oxygen therapy

- surgery

- corticosteroids

- bronchodilators

- vaccine may also be effective

- smoking cessation, if appropriate.

2. Nursing management :-

- assessment

- improving breathing pattern

- air way clearance

- improve active tolerance

- monitoring and managing complications.

By : @ummedsaini_

𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭

𝙎𝙩𝙧𝙪𝙘𝙩𝙪𝙧𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙃𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙩

The heart is divided into the left and right side by partitions called septa (singular septum).

The interatrial septum separates the two upper chambers, called atria (from atri/o, meaning "upper chambers").

The interventricular septum separates the two lower chambers, called ventricles (from ventricul/o, meaning "lower chamber).

𝙏𝙝𝙚 𝙃𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝘾𝙤𝙣𝙨𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙁𝙤𝙪𝙧 𝘾𝙚𝙡𝙡 𝙇𝙖𝙮𝙚𝙧𝙨:

The endocardium (from endo- + cardi/o +ium, meaning "inner layer of the heart") is formed by endothelial cells, and it lines the interior of the heart chambers and valves.

 The myocardium (from my/o + cardi/o + -ium, meaning "heart muscle") is the muscular middle layer of the heart that consists ofheart muscle cells. 

The epicardium (from epi- + cardi/o + -ium, meaning "outer layer of the heart") is formed by epithelial cells, and forms the outer cell layer of the heart.

The pericardium (from peri- + cardi/o +-ium, meaning "surrounding the heart") is a membranous sac that surrounds the heart. It consist of two layers called the visceral pericardium (adheres to the epicardium) and parietal pericardium (the outer coat). The space between these two layers is called pericardial cavity and it contains pericardial fluid.

𝙃𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝘾𝙝𝙖𝙢𝙗𝙚𝙧𝙨 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙑𝙖𝙡𝙫𝙚𝙨

The human heart has four chambers, which are responsible for pumping blood and maintaining blood circulation throughout the body. 

The four chambers are named:

The right atrium

The left atrium

The right ventricle

The left ventricle

Blood is only pumped to one direction. Four heart valves ensure that blood does not flow backward within the heart.

𝙏𝙝𝙚 𝙁𝙤𝙪𝙧 𝙃𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝙑𝙖𝙡𝙫𝙚𝙨 𝙖𝙧𝙚 𝙉𝙖𝙢𝙚𝙙:

*• The tricuspid valve (from tri- + cuspid, meaning "having threepoints") located between right atrium and ventricle.

* The pulmonary valve (from pulmon/o, meaning "lungs") located between right ventricle and pulmonary artery. Also called semilunarvalve.

*• The mitral valve, also called bicuspid valve ( from bi-+ cuspid, meaning "having two points") located between left atrium and ventricle.

*• The aortic valve located between left ventricle and aorta. The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are also called atrioventricular valves (meaning "located between the atrium and ventricle").

The pulmonary artery will deliver the deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs.

Oxygen is taken from the air into the blood (now called oxygenated blood), while carbon dioxide is expelled from the blood into the air. The oxygenated blood returns to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary veins.

The oxygenated blood enters the left atrium.

The left atrium pumps blood into the left ventricle. The mitral valve prevents blood from flowing backward into the left atrium.

The left ventricle pumps the blood into the aorta and systemic circulation. The oxygenated blood is delivered everywhere in the body (besides the lungs).

𝗙𝘂𝗻𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗛𝗲𝗮𝗿𝘁

The heart functions to circulate blood around the body. The right and left side of the heart pump blood into two different circulations.

The right side pumps deoxygenated (from de- + oxygenated, meaning

"without oxygen") blood into the pulmonary circulation, while the

left side pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body tissues via the superior (from super- meaning "above") and inferior (meaning below) vena cava (from ven/o meaning "vein").

The blood enters the right atrium, which pumps the blood into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing backward into the right atrium. The right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery via the pulmonary valve.

𝘽𝙡𝙤𝙤𝙙 𝘾𝙞𝙧𝙘𝙪𝙡𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

Blood circulates around the body via two distinct pathways; the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation.

Together they create a closed pathways that keep the deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separated.

𝙋𝙪𝙡𝙢𝙤𝙣𝙖𝙧𝙮 𝘾𝙞𝙧𝙘𝙪𝙡𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

Pulmonary circulation begins at the right ventricle, where the deoxygenated blood from the body tissues is pumped into the pulmonary arteries and to the lungs.

In the lungs, the blood exchanges carbon dioxide (waste product of cellular respiration) to oxygen.

The oxygenated blood them travels back to the heart and the left atrium, via the pulmonary vein.

𝙎𝙮𝙨𝙩𝙚𝙢𝙞𝙘 𝘾𝙞𝙧𝙘𝙪𝙞𝙩

The systemic circulation begins at the left ventricle that pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta.

Aorta branches out into smaller arteries, which carry the oxygenated

blood to the rest of the body (with the exception of lungs).

Oxygen is delivered to the body tissues and exchanged to carbon dioxide. The now deoxygenated blood is carried back to the heart and the right atrium via veins.

𝘼𝙧𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙫𝙨 𝙑𝙚𝙞𝙣𝙨

The blood vessels that carry blood AWAY from heart are called arteries.

The blood vessels that carry blood TOWARD the heart are called veins.

Only in systemic circulation arteries carry oxygenated blood, while in the pulmonary circulation arteries carry deoxygenated blood.

𝗖𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗛𝗲𝗮𝗿𝘁

The contraction of the muscular wall of the heart chambers, called myocardium generates the force to pump blood.

The heart contraction is divided into two phases: systole (meaning "contraction") and diastole (meaning "relaxation").

Blood is pumped from the chambers during a contraction phase. The heart chambers are filled with blood during a relaxation phase.

𝙊𝙣𝙚 𝙧𝙤𝙪𝙣𝙙 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙚𝙖𝙧𝙩 𝙘𝙤𝙣𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙨 𝙘𝙖𝙣 𝙗𝙚 𝙙𝙞𝙫𝙞𝙙𝙚𝙙 𝙞𝙣𝙩𝙤 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙛𝙤𝙡𝙡𝙤𝙬𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙥𝙝𝙖𝙨𝙚𝙨:

Relaxation phase → Blood flows from the atria into the ventricles passively via open atrioventricular valves.

The atrial systole → Contraction of atria. Pumps the rest of the blood into the ventricles.

The ventricular systole → Contraction of the ventricles. Forces blood into the pulmonary and systemic circulation. (During the ventricular systole, the atria relax and begin to fill with blood arriving from vena cava or the pulmonary veins.

Ventricular diastole → The ventricles and atria are relaxed.

𝗦𝗶𝗻𝗼𝗮𝘁𝗿𝗶𝗮𝗹 (𝗦𝗔) 𝗡𝗼𝗱𝗲

Myocardium contracts after it receives an electrical impulse generated by a specialized tissue located within the right atrium.

This is called the sinoatrial node (SA node), also called the pacemaker of the

heart. The SA node is a bundle of neurons that triggers the contraction of

the atria during the cardiac cycle.

The electrical currents next reach the ventricles, which contract after the atria. The SA node initiates approximately 75 electrical impulses each minute, with

variation between individuals' age and general health

𝗔𝘁𝗿𝗶𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗶𝗰𝘂𝗹𝗮𝗿 𝗻𝗼𝗱𝗲 (𝗔𝗩 𝗻𝗼𝗱𝗲)

This small mass of neuromuscular tissue is situated in the wall of the atrial septum near the atrioventricular valves. Normally, the AV node merely transmits the electrical signals from the atria into the ventricles. There is a delay here; the electrical signal takes 0.1 of a second to pass through into the ventricles. This allows the atria to finish contracting before the ventricles start.

The AV node also has a secondary pacemaker function and takes over this role if there is a problem with the SA node itself, or with the transmission of impulses from the atria. Its intrinsic firing rate, however, is slower than that set by the SA node (40-60 beats per minute)

𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗣𝘂𝗿𝗸𝗶𝗻𝗷𝗲 𝗙𝗶𝗯𝗲𝗿𝘀

The Purkinje fibers are cells in the inner ventricle walls, just beneath the endocardium. These fibers run between the ventricles to the apex (bottom) of the heart. The Purkinje fibers play a crucial role in the cardiac cycle.

When an electrical stimulus leaves the AV node, it travels via the bundle of His and branches to the Purkinje fibers. These fibers then carry the impulse through the inner wall of each ventricle. This causes the ventricles to contract after the atria contract.

The ventricle contraction forces blood from the right ventricle to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) and from the left ventricle to the body (systemic circulation).

These three elements generate a healthy heart rhythm known as sinus rhythm. The rhythm, or contraction of the heart pumps blood throughout the body. In roughly a minute's time, blood travels from the heart to the body and back.

By : @ummedsaini_

𝙨𝙪𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙛𝙞𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙠𝙣𝙤𝙬𝙡𝙚𝙙𝙜𝙚 𝙖𝙗𝙤𝙪𝙩 𝙤𝙪𝙧 𝙗𝙤𝙙𝙮

𝙨𝙪𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙛𝙞𝙘𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙠𝙣𝙤𝙬𝙡𝙚𝙙𝙜𝙚 𝙖𝙗𝙤𝙪𝙩 𝙤𝙪𝙧 𝙗𝙤𝙙𝙮

1. Number of bones - 206

2. Number of muscles - 639

3. Number of kidneys - 2

4. Number of milk teeth - 20

5. Number of ribs - 24 (12 pairs)

6. Number of chambers in the heart - 4

7. Largest artery. Aorta Normal Blood pressure - 120/80

8. Ph of blood - 7.4

9. Number of vertebrae in the spine - 33

10. Number of vertebrae in the Neck - 7

11. No. of bones in middle Ear-6

12. Number of bones in Face - 14 

13. Number of bones in Skull - 22

14. Number of bones in Chest - 25

15. Number of bones in Arms -6

16. Number of bones in each human ear - 3

17. Number of muscles in the human arm - 72

18. Number of pumps in heart - 2

19. Largest organ - Skin

20. Largest gland - Liver

21. Smallest cell - Blood cell

22. Biggest cell - Egg cell (ovum)

23. Smallest bone - Stapes

24. First transplanted organ - Heart 

25. Average length of small Intestine - 7 m

26. Average length of large intestine - 1.5 m

27. Average weight of new born baby - 2.6

28. Pulse rate in one minute - 72 limes

29. Body Temperature - 36.90 °C (98.40 °F)

30. Average blood volume. 4-5 liters

31. Average life of RBC - 120 days

32. Pregnancy period - 280 days

33. Number of bones in human foot - 33

34. Number of bones in each wrist - 8

35. Number of bones in hand - 27

36. Largest endocrine gland - Thyroid

37. Largest lymphatic organ - Spleen

38. Largest cell - Nerve cell

By : @ummedsaini_

@nursing_education

𝘿𝙍𝙐𝙂𝙎 𝙏𝙤 𝘼𝙑𝙊𝙄𝘿 𝘿𝙪𝙧𝙞𝙣𝙜 𝙋𝙍𝙀𝙂𝙉𝘼𝙉𝘾𝙔

* DRUGS To AVOID During PREGNANCY *

1) 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐛𝐢𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 :

▫Fluoroquinolones : (Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Levofloxacin, And Norfloxacin)

▫Sulfonamides : (Sulfasalazine And Trimethoprim - Sulfamethoxazole)

▫Tetracyclines

▫Streptomycin

▫Nitrofurantoin

** Abnormalities Caused :

Possibility of Bone And Joint Abnormalities. 

(Seen Only In animals). 

2) 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐮𝐥𝐬𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬 :

▪Carbamazepine

▪Phenobarbital

▪Phenytoin

▪Valproate

** Abnormalities Caused :

Bleeding Problems In The Newborn. To

This Problem Can be Prevented By Taking Vitamin K Orally 30 Days Before Delivery.

Cause Risk Of Birth Defects, Including Neural Tube Defects. 

(Such As Spina Bifida)

Valproate Cause Some (1%) Risk Of Birth Defects, Including Neural Tube Defects. 

(Such As Meningomyelocele),

Cleft Palate, And 

Defects of Face, The Heart, Skull, Limbs and Spine. 

 3) 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐡𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 :

 a) Angiotensin - Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors :

▪Captopril

▪Benazepril

▪Fosinopril

▪Enalapril

▪Lisinopril

▪Quinapril

▪Ramipril

▪Trandolapril

▪Perindopril

** Abnormalities Caused :

Serious Injury To The Fetus,

May Cause Kidney Damage In The Fetus,

Reduce Amniotic Fluid,

Also Cause Defects Of Lungs, Face and Limbs.

 b) Calcium Channel Blockers :

▫Isradipine

▫Nisoldipine

▫Amlodipine

▫Verapamil

▫Nifedipine (Sustained - Release Only)

▫Diltiazem(Sustained - Release Only)

▫Nicardipine

▫Felodipine

** Abnormalities Caused :

Fluid Retention in the Ankles,

Dizziness,

Headache,

Flushing,

Heartburn,

Tachycardia and

Enlarged Gums. 

Verapamil Also Causes Constipation.

 c) Beta Blockers :

▫Atenolol

▫Bisoprolol

▫Metoprolol

▫Acebutolol

▫Nadolol

▫Penbutolol

▫Propranolol

▫Betaxolol

▫Carteolol

▫Timolol

▫Nebivolol

▫Pindolol

** Problems Caused :

Slow Growth Rate In The Fetus,

Low Level Of Blood Sugar And Low Heart Rate.

 d) Thiazide Diuretics :

▫Chlorothiazide

▫Bendroflumethiazide

▫Hydroflumethiazide

▫Chlorthalidone

▫Methyclothiazide

▫Metolazone

▫Indapamide

▫Hydrochlorothiazide

** Problems Caused :

Decrease In The Level Of Oxygen, Potassium Sodium,

Decrease In Number Of Platelets In The Fetus,

Inadequate Growth Before Birth.

 4) 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐱𝐢𝐞𝐭𝐲 𝐃𝐫𝐮𝐠𝐬 :

▪Lithium

** Abnormalities Caused :

Poor Feeding, 

Lethargy,

Reduced Muscle Tone,

Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus In The Newborn and

Underactivity Of The Thyroid Gland.

 5) 𝐍𝐨𝐧 𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢 - 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐲 𝐃𝐫𝐮𝐠𝐬 (𝐍𝐒𝐀𝐈𝐃𝐬) :

▪Naproxen

▪Ibuprofen

▪Aspirin and other Salicylate

** Problems Or Abnormalities Caused:

When Taken In Large Doses,

Probably Miscarriages During The First Trimester,

A Delay Within The Begin Of Labor,

Premature Closing Of The Connection Between The Aorta And Artery To The Lungs (Ductus Arteriosus),

Jaundice,

Necrotizing Enterocolitis (Damage To The Liner Of The Intestine), And (Occasionally)

Brain Injury Within The Foetus And Bleeding Issues Within The Woman Throughout And After Delivery And / Or Within The Newborn When The Medication Is Taken Late In Pregnancy,

A Reduction In The Amount Of Amniotic Fluid. 

 6) 𝐒𝐞𝐱 𝐇𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐬 :

Synthetic Progestins

(But Not The Low Doses Used In Oral Contraceptives)

▫Danazol

When Synthetic Progestin And Danazol Are Taken In The early Stages Of Pregnancy, Masculinization Of A Female Fetus’s Genitals, Sometimes Requiring Surgery For Correction. 

▫Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

Abnormalities Of The Penis In Sons,

Abnormalities Of The Uterus,

An Increased Risk Of Vaginal Cancer,

Menstrual Problems, and

Complications During Pregnancy In Daughters.

 7) 𝐕𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬 :

Vaccines for Polio, Measles, Mumps or Yellow Fever. 

These Vaccines Causes Potential Infection Of The Placenta And Developing Fetus.

Vaccine For Chickenpox (Varicella) And Rubella.

This Is Associated With Unknow Risks.

8) 𝐃𝐫𝐮𝐠𝐬 𝐔𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐈𝐧 𝐒𝐤𝐢𝐧 𝐓𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 :

▫Isotretinoin

▫Etretinate

** Problems Caused :

Both Drugs, 

Birth defects, Such As

Small Ears,

Heart Defects, and Hydrocephalus.

While Isotretinoin Also Cause Intellectual Disability And Risk of Miscarriage.

9) 𝐎𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢 𝐃𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 :

▫Metformin

▫Glyburide

▫Tolbutamide

By : @ummedsaini_

@nursing_education